Exercise Behavior’s Impact on Self-Esteem
The research has shown that when adults, adolescents, and children undertake an exercise program
self-esteem is enhanced in the process. This paper examines a number of articles examining the
different age populations and the influence of exercise on self-esteem.
As research had not previously demonstrated the relation of an environmental influence such as
physical activity and its effect on the development of self-esteem in children, Boyd and Hrycaiko
(1997) examined this relation more directly. This study of pre-adolescent and adolescent females
revealed that the pre-adolescent low self-esteem and low physical self-concept groups derived the
greatest benefit from the physical activity intervention. The purpose of the study was to examine
the effects of a physical activity intervention package which involved a six-week structured exercise
program on the self-esteem of pre-adolescent and adolescent females. They hypothesized that a
physical activity intervention would positively affect physical self-concepts and global self-esteem
of low-esteem early and pre-adolescent subjects. Upon examination of the intervention package of
self-esteem, ranked on the basis of total self-concept, the impact was significant only for the
physical appearance of self-concept for the pre-adolescent girls. With respect to the pre-adolescents,
partial support for the hypothesis was made since this group experienced significant changes in global
self-esteem. However, the results for the early and middle adolescents did not support the hypothesis,
as these groups did not have significant changes in self-esteem. Therefore, the hypothesis that a
physical activity intervention would have a positive effect on physical self-concepts was only partially
supported. Support for the third hypothesis that the greatest effect would be with the early
adolescents followed by the pre-adolescents came from the data showing that the pre-adolescents
garnered the most benefit from the intervention package, the early adolescents showed somewhat
mixed results, while no significant results were seen with the middle adolescents. It was concluded
that the impact on the two adolescent age groups was limited because their levels of self-esteem
were high from the start and the physical activity program wasn’t challenging enough to the adolescent
group to produce significant change.
In a study comparing pregnant adolescents engaged in a six-week course of aerobic exercise with a
control group of pregnant adolescents not engaged in exercise, conducted by Koniak-Griffin (1994)
at UCLA it was demonstrated that an aerobic exercise program reduced depressive symptoms as well
as improved feelings of self-concept. Interpretation of the data from this research coincides with
the generally accepted theories of this field. First, the author concluded that the improved mental
status could be the increased plasma levels of endorphins. Second, the increased feelings of
self-efficacy could be the result of participation in the program. Third, the participant’s needs
were met simply by being involved in a group activity that provided new opportunities, social contact,
and group acceptance. Lastly, the exercise provided a diversion and allowed participants to forget
about their problems. In general, the results of this study concur with previous research as to the
positive effects of aerobic exercise on mental health, but individual with higher self-esteem do not
exhibit significant changes.
Research on adults has revealed consistent results similar to the research with adolescents. Two of
the reviewed studies are specific to women; however, another study which included middle-aged men and
women showed similar results. A study examining acute mood response in women at two separate time
periods, conducted by Pronk et.al. (1995) at Texas A & M, revealed that maximal exercise shows acute
increases in fatigue and self-esteem and decreased tension and vigor.
A study of the effects of an eight-week walking program on self-esteem in women conducted by Palmer
(1995) at Northeast Louisiana University concurs with the previously stated research. This study also
showed improvement in self-esteem following the implementation of a fitness program. They hypothesized
that walking will improve scores on depression, self-esteem, and physical fitness. Results of the data
showed that, not only did the walking group have an increase in self-esteem, but that the non-walking
group had a significant decrease in self-esteem. However, interpretation of the results are similar
to that of the pregnant adolescents in that the changes in self-esteem could have been due to other
factors such as acquiring a new skill, engaging in social interaction, the influence of the researchers,
or having accomplished a difficult task. Additionally, significant improvements in self-esteem are more
pronounced when individuals initially have very low self-esteem. These participants described themselves
as “fitness rejects” which could also explain their more notable improved feelings of self-efficacy.
Another important point is the finding that physiological improvement is not necessary for psychological
improvement. The women in this program did not know their improved fitness levels before the post
psychological measures were taken, indicating that the self-esteem changes were not related to the
physical improvements. However, both physical and psychological benefits from the walking program
were demonstrated.
A study by McAuley et. al. (1997) at University of Illinois of exercise and self-esteem in middle-aged
adults participating in a twenty week structured exercise program demonstrated support for the theoretical
relationships among the components of self-esteem. The purpose of this study was to determine the relation
between general self-concept and the specific subareas of self-concept, specifically how the changes in
efficacy and aerobic capacity as well as engaging in an exercise program impacted self-worth.
This research tested the extent to which self-esteem changed over time with exercise participation
and within the hierarchical structure of self-esteem as postulated by Sonstroem and Morgan (1989).
The results demonstrated that improved levels of physical self-efficacy and fitness were more directly
related to physical self-esteem than perceptions occurring in the subareas. The authors conclude that
the findings are consistent with the Sonstroem and Morgan model indicating that self-efficacy predicts
physical competence which then impacts self-esteem.
PAGE 5
Intro to the Self-Esteem Cycle--page 1
Theories
Proposed to Understand Relationship of Self-Esteem and Exercise --page 2
Self-Esteem's
Impact on Exercise Behavior--page 3
Exercise Behavior's Impact on Self-Esteem--page 4
Conclusion--page 5
Copyright © 2001 by Monica A. Frank, Ph.D. and
www.excelatlife.com. Permission to reprint this
article is granted if it includes this entire copyright
and link.
RECOMMENDED BOOKS...
"When you are in a state of
mindfulness you are actually
more aware and able to
engage in tasks..."
WHY ARE MEDITATIVE
RELAXATION
AND MINDFULNESS IMPORTANT? (page 1)
By Monica A. Frank, Ph.D.
When I ask clients what they do for daily relaxation I usually get responses such as:
"I relax by watching TV every night."
"I have a glass of wine."
"I read a book."
"I go out with friends."
"I go to the gym and work out."
"I find gardening relaxing."
"I like to fish."
Although each of these activities may be perceived as relaxing and may even have an element of
mindfulness, they don't provide the brain and body with the deep meditative relaxation we
require. In fact, most of these activities are stimulating to the brain or the body.
What is Deep Meditative Relaxation?
When I refer to deep meditative relaxation,
I mean the type that allows our brain to enter an "alpha" state for a period of time. An "alpha"
state refers to our brain waves as measured by an EEG. When (non-invasive) electrodes are
attached to our heads to measure our brain waves, we find several different types occur depending
upon our degree of wakefulness.
The normal state of wakefulness in which we are fully aware and active is shown as "beta" waves.
Beta waves on the EEG are very active, not very uniform, and not deep are slow. This makes sense
as it is showing that the brain is active which includes thinking as well as physical activity
which the brain must direct. So, most of the statements above can be described by a "beta wave
state."
When we fall asleep our brain slows down, and the brain waves become deeper, slower, and more
rhythmic as we progress through the deeper stages of sleep including theta and delta brain waves.
However, when we cycle back into dream sleep or "REM" sleep then our brain approaches the wakeful
state of the beta waves because our brain is active during dream sleep.
For most people who don't practice deep meditative relaxation, these are the primary brain waves
that they experience. However, with deep relaxation, meditation, hypnosis, and mindfulness people
experience the alpha brain wave state as well as the theta brain wave state (Chiesa, 2009;
Lagopoulos et al, 2009) which have been shown to have significant health benefits.
PAGE 2
Intro to Meditative
Relaxation--page 1
What are the health
benefits of deep meditative relaxation?--page 2
How do I do deep
meditative relaxation?--page 3
Copyright © 2010 by Monica A. Frank, Ph.D. and
www.excelatlife.com. Permission to reprint this
article is granted if it includes this entire copyright
and link.
RECOMMENDED BOOKS...
