INTRODUCTION

Although sports psychology is still in its infancy, a tremendous amount of interest has been generated by the potential of psychological principles to enhance athletic performance. In particular, the dedication to empirical examination of the tenets of cognitive-behavioral theory has led to more effective clinical techniques which have been intuitively appealing to sport psychology consultants. As a result, psychological methods were implemented to enhance performance prior to solid research support. However, recent reviews of studies conducted in the last approximately fifteen years have shown the psychological methods to be useful in the area of sports performance enhancement (Greenspan & Feltz, 1989; Weinberg and Comar, 1994).

Much of the research in this area has focused on individual sports or individual skills for team sports as that allows for better experimental designs. As the research base has grown, it has become possible to select particular sports, especially those that are individually based, and examine the literature for the factors that influence performance. A number of studies have specifically focused on enhancing performance in the martial arts as the martial arts are conducive to empirical study given their nature and the reasons that individuals participate in the martial arts. Columbus and Rice (1998) examined written descriptions of reasons individuals participate in martial arts and found four themes: 1) criminal victimization; 2) growth and discovery including challenging self mentally, physically, or spiritually, and facing fears; 3) life transition and wanting to get life in control; and 4) task performance and seeing martial arts achievement as contributing to achieving in other life situations and tasks. Several of these themes involve a desire for life enhancement likely due to the view of the martial arts as a way of life rather than simply a sport. Many of the mental skills strategies used in sports psychology have been found to be effective in achieving peak performance throughout life’s experiences (Orlick, 2000). These strategies have frequently been used in the martial arts but may not have always been systematically taught.

For instance, Rodney Hard (1983) wrote a sparring principles manual based on methods taught to him by Joe Lewis, the World Karate Champion. He indicated that there were three stages of development to compete effectively in tournaments: 1) physical skills training; 2) application of the principles of sparring; and 3) the development and use of psychological skills to enhance performance. The most important psychological skill according to Hard (1983) is focus, which he refers to as external focus. Generally, any internal focus on negative thoughts, future thinking, or fear will create anxiety and lack of confidence, which will interfere with competition performance. When an individual is externally focused, confidence and determination is more apparent and the individual’s movements flow without anticipation or conscious decision-making. The performance in the ring becomes automatic and focused on the present moment. The karate fighter is not focused on ego or self, but on perfecting skill and is detached from the outcome.

This state of detachment is consistent with the concept of flow, or being in the zone. An examination of the literature involving flow in athletics by Jackson and Csikszentmihalyi (1999), identifies a number of components that characterize flow. To achieve flow, a task has to be challenging but the person needs the level of skill to be able to meet the challenge; it doesn’t matter the particular skill level of the athlete as long as the challenge and level of skill is in balance. During flow, action and awareness merge so that the body and mind function as one. To achieve flow, the athlete needs clear goals, unambiguous feedback, concentration on the task at hand, and a sense of control over the event. The experience of flow involves the loss of self-consciousness and transformation of time. Flow is an autotelic experience in that it is intrinsically rewarding in itself and is sought out because it is fun.

Fredrick (1999) identified twelve themes common to achieving peak performance, or flow, in karate competition through a qualitative study of seven highly experienced national competitors. During precompetition, common themes included unique person/situation experiences, mental skills training, the importance of confidence as a positive expectancy, and the development of physical skills. Themes common to the competition phase included transitions into and out of peak moments, the experience of altered states, applying mental skills, and experiencing confidence as power. Finally, the postcompetition phase included themes of reflections on experience, assessing and improving mental skills, and growth in confidence. This study shows peak moment in sport karate to be a dynamic process that involves transitions in and out of flow as well as growth over time. In addition, confidence is an important aspect to the attainment of peak moments during competition. The athletes studied indicated that achieving flow through peak performance was a goal in training and personally rewarding.

Interviews of martial artists by Hodge and Deakin (1998) indicated that martial artists tend to enjoy activities most relevant to improving their performance and that mental work and physical work are both considered important in the martial arts. The more relevant the martial artists found a task, the greater emphasis they placed on concentration. According to Fredrick (1999), mental skills used by martial artists during precompetition to achieve peak performance included visualization, raising emotion, warm-up routines, and focus. During the competition phase, the mental skills involved focus/concentration, relaxation, and a strong motivation to win. Postcompetition involved an assessment of performance and mental skills growth. Throughout the competitive process, confidence was a critical factor.   PAGE 2

Introduction to Performance Enhancement in the Martial Arts--page 1

How Does Expertise Affect Performance?--page 2

What Influences Skill Development and Performance?--page 3

How is Anxiety Related to Performance?--page 4

How Do Cognitive Skills Relate to Performance?--page 5

Effectiveness of Psychological Interventions for Performance Enhancement--page 6

Suggested Plan for Interventions to Improve Performance--page 7

Conclusion to Performance Enhancement in the Martial Arts--page 8

"I have so many great ideas, if only I could get motivated."

"I do well with deadlines, but I can't seem to motivate myself."

"I can't seem to lose weight unless I have someone constantly checking on me and I can't afford a personal trainer."

"I would perform better if I could make myself practice more."

Do any of these sound familiar? What the above statements have in common is the individual's need for extrinsic motivation for follow-through, the inability to achieve a desired goal unless someone else provides the impetus to pursue the goal. Without the development of intrinsic motivation, individuals have a great deal of difficulty achieving success in almost any area. If you examine successful people, one of the main differences is their ability to motivate themselves. They are not necessarily more intelligent, or have better ideas, or have better luck; they are just able to pursue a goal to its conclusion.  PAGE 2

Intro--page 1

What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?--page 2

How does normal motivation develop?--page 3

What prevents the development of the proper balance of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?--page 4

How is too much need for extrinsic motivation problematic?--page 5

How do you develop more intrinsic motivation?--page 6